Hypertext is text displayed on a computer A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format or other electronic device with references (hyperlinks In computing, a hyperlink is a reference to a document that the reader can directly follow, or that is followed automatically[citation needed]. The reference points to a whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. Such text is usually viewed with a computer. A software system for viewing and) to other text that the reader can immediately access, usually by a mouse click or keypress sequence. Apart from running text, hypertext may contain tables, images and other presentational devices. Hypertext is the underlying concept defining the structure of the World Wide Web The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as the Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them by using hyperlinks. Using concepts from earlier hypertext systems, British, making it an easy-to-use and flexible format to share information over the Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and.^[1]

Etymology

The prefix hyper- (comes from the Greek prefix "υπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond") signifies the overcoming of the old linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "hypermedia Hypermedia is used as a logical extension of the term hypertext in which graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks intertwine to create a generally non-linear medium of information.This contrasts with the broader term multimedia, which may be used to describe non-interactive linear presentations as well as hypermedia. It is also related to" might seem appropriate. In 1992, author Ted Nelson Theodor Holm Nelson is an American sociologist, philosopher, and pioneer of information technology. He coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1963 and published it in 1965. He also is credited with first use of the words transclusion, virtuality, intertwingularity and teledildonics. The main thrust of his work has – who coined both terms in 1965 – wrote:

By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. — Nelson, Literary Machines Literary Machines is a book first published in 1980 by Ted Nelson, and republished 9 times by 1993. It offers an extensive overview of Nelson's term "hypertext" as well as Nelson's Project Xanadu. It also includes other theories by Nelson, including "tumblers" for addressing bits in files past and present, "transclusion&, 1992

Types and uses of hypertext

Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications Application software, also known as applications or apps, is computer software designed to help the user to perform singular or multiple related specific tasks. Examples include Enterprise software, Accounting software, Office suites, Graphics software and media players, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Hypertext can develop very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as the Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them by using hyperlinks. Using concepts from earlier hypertext systems, British , first deployed in 1992.

History

Early precursors to hypertext

Recorders of information have long looked for ways to categorize and compile it. Early on, experiments existed with various methods for arranging layers of annotations An annotation is a summary made of information in a book, document, online record, video, software code or other information, "in the margin", or perhaps just underlined or highlighted passages. Annotated bibliographies, give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. Creating these around a document. The most famous example of this is the Talmud The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism, in the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history. Other reference works (for example dictionaries, encyclopedias) also developed a precursor to hypertext: the setting of certain words in small capital letters, indicating that an entry existed for that term within the same reference work. Sometimes the term would be preceded by an index The symbol ☞ is a punctuation mark, called an index, manicule or fist. Though rare today, this symbol was in common use between the 12th and 18th centuries in the margins of books, and was formerly included in lists of standard punctuation marks. Its typical use is as a bullet-like symbol to direct the reader’s attention to important text,, ☞like this, or an arrow An arrow is a graphical symbol such as → or ←, used to point or indicate direction, being in its simplest form a line segment with a triangle affixed to one end, and in more complex forms a representation of an actual arrow . The direction indicated by an arrow is the one along the length of the line towards the end capped by a triangle, ➧like this. Janet Murray has referenced Jorge Luis Borges Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo , best known as Jorge Luis Borges (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈxorxe ˈlwiz ˈβorxes]), was an Argentine writer, essayist, and poet born in Buenos Aires. In 1914 his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his' "The Garden of Forking Paths "The Garden of Forking Paths" is a 1941 short story by Argentine writer and poet Jorge Luis Borges. It was his first work to be translated into English, appearing in Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine in August 1948" as a precursor to the hypertext novel and aesthetic.^[2] "The concept Borges described in 'The Garden of Forking Paths'--in several layers of the story, but most directly in the combination book and maze of Ts'ui Pen—is that of a novel that can be read in multiple ways, a hypertext novel. Borges described this in 1941, prior to the invention (or at least the public disclosure) of the electromagnetic digital computer. Borges also mentions how hypertext has similarities to a labyrinth in which each link brings the navigator to a set of new links, in an ever expanding maze. Not only did he invent the hypertext novel—Borges went on to describe a theory of the universe based upon the structure of such a novel." - Wardrip-Fruin Noah Wardrip-Fruin is Assistant Professor in the Computer Science Department of the University of California, Santa Cruz.. He is an alumnus of the Literary Arts MFA program and Special Graduate Study PhD program at Brown University. In addition to his research in digital media, computer games, and software studies, he is a literary artist for and Montfort^[3]

Later, several scholars entered the scene who believed that humanity was drowning in information, causing foolish decisions and duplicating efforts among scientists. These scholars proposed or developed proto-hypertext systems predating electronic computer technology. For example, in the early 20th century, two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on labor-intensive, brute force In computer science, brute-force search or exhaustive search, also known as generate and test, is a trivial but very general problem-solving technique that consists of systematically enumerating all possible candidates for the solution and checking whether each candidate satisfies the problem's statement methods. Paul Otlet Paul Marie Ghislain Otlet (23 August 1868 – 10 December 1944) was an author, entrepreneur, visionary, lawyer and peace activist; he is one of several people who have been considered the father of information science, a field he called "documentation". Otlet created the Universal Decimal Classification, one of the most prominent proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle, in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on index cards An index card is heavy paper stock cut to a standard size. Index cards are often used for recording individual items of information that can then be easily rearranged and filed. It was invented by Carl Linnaeus. The most common size in the United States and Russia is 3 by 5 inches (76 by 127 mm), hence the common name 3-by-5 card. Other sizes. In the 1930s, H.G. Wells Herbert George Wells was an English author, now best known for his work in the science fiction genre. He was also a prolific writer in many other genres, including contemporary novels, history, politics and social commentary. Together with Jules Verne, Wells has been referred to as "The Father of Science Fiction" proposed the creation of a World Brain World Brain is the title of a book of essays by English author H.G. Wells, published in 1938. Some of the essays were first presented as speeches in 1937. In several instances throughout the book, Wells presents his idea of a universal, evolving encyclopedia that would help people become better informed citizens of the world.

Michael Buckland Michael Keeble Buckland is an Emeritus Professor at the UC Berkeley School of Information and Co-Director of the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative summarized the very advanced pre-World War II development of microfilm based on rapid retrieval devices, specifically the microfilm based workstation proposed by Leonard Townsend in 1938 and the microfilm and photoelectronic based selector, patented by Emanuel Goldberg Emanuel Goldberg (born: 31 August 1881; died: 13 September 1970) was born in Moscow and moved first to Germany and later to Israel. He described himself as “a chemist by learning, physicist by calling, and a mechanic by birth.” He contributed a wide range of theoretic and practical advances relating to light and media and was the founding head in 1931.^[4] Buckland concluded: "The pre-war information retrieval specialists of continental Europe, the 'documentalists,' largely disregarded by post-war information retrieval specialists, had ideas that were considerably more advanced than is now generally realized." But, like the manual index card model, these microfilm devices provided rapid retrieval based on pre-coded indices and classification schemes published as part of the microfilm record without including the link model which distinguishes the modern concept of hypertext from content or category based information retrieval Information retrieval is the science of searching for documents, for information within documents, and for metadata about documents, as well as that of searching relational databases and the World Wide Web. There is overlap in the usage of the terms data retrieval, document retrieval, information retrieval, and text retrieval, but each also has.

The Memex

All major histories of what we now call hypertext start in 1945, when Vannevar Bush Vannevar Bush was an American engineer and science administrator known for his work on analog computing, his political role in the development of the atomic bomb as a primary organizer of the Manhattan Project, and the idea of the memex, an adjustable microfilm-viewer which is somewhat analogous to the structure of the World Wide Web. As Director wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly The Atlantic is an American magazine founded as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston in 1857. It was created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine. Though based in Boston, it quickly achieved a national reputation, which it held for more than a century. It was important for recognizing and publishing new writers and poets, and encouraging major called "As We May Think As We May Think is an essay by Vannevar Bush, first published in The Atlantic Monthly in July 1945, and republished again as an abridged version in September 1945 — therefore, before and after the U.S. nuclear attacks on Japan. Bush expresses his concern for the direction of scientific efforts towards destruction, rather than understanding, and", about a futuristic device he called a Memex The memex is the name given by Vannevar Bush to the theoretical proto-hypertext computer system he proposed in his 1945 The Atlantic Monthly article As We May Think. The memex is a device in which an individual compresses and stores all of their books, records, and communications which is then mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding. He described the device as an electromechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of microfilms Microforms are any form, either films or paper, containing microreproductions of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced about 25 times from the original document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used, able to display books, writings, or any document from a library. The Memex would also be able to create 'trails' of linked and branching sets of pages, combining pages from the published microfilm library with personal annotations or additions captured on a microfilm recorder. Bush's vision was based on extensions of 1945 technology - microfilm recording and retrieval in this case. However, the modern story of hypertext starts with the Memex because "As We May Think" directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, Ted Nelson Theodor Holm Nelson is an American sociologist, philosopher, and pioneer of information technology. He coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1963 and published it in 1965. He also is credited with first use of the words transclusion, virtuality, intertwingularity and teledildonics. The main thrust of his work has and Douglas Engelbart Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart is an American inventor and early computer pioneer. He is best known for inventing the computer mouse, as a pioneer of human-computer interaction whose team developed hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to GUIs; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and networks to help.

The invention of hypertext

Ted Nelson Theodor Holm Nelson is an American sociologist, philosopher, and pioneer of information technology. He coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1963 and published it in 1965. He also is credited with first use of the words transclusion, virtuality, intertwingularity and teledildonics. The main thrust of his work has coined the words "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1965 and worked with Andries van Dam Andries "Andy" van Dam is a Dutch-born American pioneering professor of computer science and former Vice-President for Research at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. Together with Ted Nelson he contributed to the first hypertext system, HES in the late 1960s. He co-authored Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice along with to develop the Hypertext Editing System The Hypertext Editing System, or HES, was an early hypertext research project conducted at Brown University in 1967 by Andries van Dam, Ted Nelson, and several Brown students. HES was a pioneering hypertext system that organized data into two main types: links and branching text. The branching text could automatically be arranged into menus and a in 1968 at Brown University Brown University is a private Ivy League university located in Providence, Rhode Island. Founded in 1764 prior to American independence from the British Empire as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations early in the reign of King George III , Brown is the third-oldest institution of higher education in New. Engelbart had begun working on his NLS NLS, or the "oN-Line System", was a revolutionary computer collaboration system designed by Douglas Engelbart and the researchers at the Augmentation Research Center at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) during the 1960s. The NLS system was the first to employ the practical use of hypertext links, the mouse (co-invented by Engelbart system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute SRI International, founded as Stanford Research Institute, is one of the world's largest contract research institutes. Based in the United States, the trustees of Stanford University established it in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region. It was later incorporated as an independent non-profit organization, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "The Mother of All Demos The Mother of All Demos is a name given retrospectively to Douglas Engelbart's December 9, 1968 demonstration at the Fall Joint Computer Conference at the Convention Center in San Francisco, in which a number of experimental technologies that have since become commonplace were presented. The demo featured the first computer mouse the public had".

Funding for NLS slowed after 1974. Influential work in the following decade included NoteCards NoteCards was a hypertext system developed at Xerox PARC by Randall Trigg, Frank Halasz and Thomas Moran in 1984. NoteCards developed after Trigg became the first to write a Ph.D. thesis on hypertext while at the University of Maryland College Park in 1983. NoteCards is one of the best known hypertext projects in the research world due to its at Xerox PARC PARC , formerly Xerox PARC, is a research and co-development company in Palo Alto, California with a distinguished reputation for its contributions to information technology and hardware systems and ZOG ZOG was an early hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s by Donald McCracken and Robert Akscyn. ZOG was first developed by Allen Newell and George Robertson to serve as the front end for AI and Cognitive Science programs brought together at CMU for a summer workshop. The ZOG project was as an outgrowth of long- at Carnegie Mellon Coordinates: 40°26′36″N 79°56′37″W / 40.443322°N 79.943583°W Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The university began as the Carnegie Technical Schools, founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1900. In 1912, the school became Carnegie Institute of Technology and began granting four-year. ZOG started in 1972 as an artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. Textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who research project under the supervision of Allen Newell Allen Newell was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Department of Psychology. He contributed to the Information Processing Language (1956) and two of the earliest AI programs, the Logic Theory Machine (1956, and pioneered the "frame" or "card" model of hypertext. ZOG was deployed in 1982 on the U.S.S. Carl Vinson The USS Carl Vinson is a United States Navy Nimitz class supercarrier named after Carl Vinson, a Congressman from Georgia and later commercialized as Knowledge Management System Knowledge Management System refers to a (generally IT based) system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary or sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative. Two other influential hypertext projects from the early 1980s were Ben Shneiderman Ben Shneiderman is an American computer scientist, and professor for Computer Science at the Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory at the University of Maryland, College Park. He conducted fundamental research in the field of human–computer interaction, developing new ideas, methods, and tools such as the direct manipulation interface, and his's The Interactive Encyclopedia System The Interactive Encyclopedia System, or TIES, was a hypertext system developed at the University of Maryland, College Park by Ben Shneiderman in 1983. The earliest versions of TIES ran in DOS text mode, using the cursor arrow keys for navigating through information. A later version of HyperTIES for the Sun workstation was developed using the NeWS (TIES) at the University of Maryland The University of Maryland, College Park is a public research university located in the city of College Park in Prince George's County, Maryland, just outside Washington, D.C. Founded in 1856, the University of Maryland is the flagship institution of the University System of Maryland. With a total enrollment of 36,014 students, Maryland is the (1983) and Intermedia Intermedia was the third notable hypertext project to emerge from Brown University, after HES and FRESS (1969). Intermedia was started in 1985 by Norman Meyrowitz, who had been associated with earlier hypertext research at Brown. The Intermedia project coincided with the establishment of the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship ( at Brown University (1984).

Early Hypertext Applications

The first hypermedia application was the Aspen Movie Map in 1977. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hypertext and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later integrated into the Web. Guide was the first significant hypertext system for personal computers. In 1983, a hypermedia authoring tool, Tutor-Tech, designed for Apple II computers, was produced for educators.

In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext and new media. The first ACM Hypertext academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the hypertext literature writing software Storyspace were also demoed^[5]

Meanwhile Nelson, who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades, along with the commercial success of HyperCard, stirred Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released.

Hypertext and the World Wide Web

In the late 1980s, Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, invented the World Wide Web to meet the demand for simple and immediate information-sharing among physicists working at CERN and different universities or institutes all over the world. In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet.

Early in 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois released the first version of their Mosaic web browser to supplement the two existing web browsers: one that ran only on NeXTSTEP and one that was only minimally user-friendly. Because it could display and link graphics as well as text, Mosaic quickly became the replacement for Lynx. Mosaic ran in the X Window System environment, which was then popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interactions. It allowed images^[6] as well as text to anchor hypertext links. It also incorporated other protocols intended to coordinate information across the Internet, such as Gopher.^[7]

After the release of web browsers for both the PC and Macintosh environments, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. Thus, all earlier hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it originally lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as an easy way to edit what you were reading, typed links, backlinks, transclusion, and source tracking.

In 1995, Ward Cunningham made the first wiki available, making the Web more hypertextual by adding easy editing, and (within a single wiki) backlinks and limited source tracking. It also added the innovation of making it possible to link to pages that did not yet exist. Wiki developers continue to implement novel features as well as those developed or imagined in the early explorations of hypertext but not included in the original web.

The Firefox Add-On Hyperwords which has been developed in cooperation with Doug Engelbart^[8] and Ted Nelson^[9] gives Web surfers the ability to issue many commands on any text on the web, not only pre-written links - a return to what users could do 40 years earlier with Doug Engelbart's NLS.

Implementations

Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:

• FRESS – A 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System.
• Electronic Document System – An early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction.
• Information Presentation Facility – Used to display online help in IBM operating systems.
• Intermedia – A mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing.
• Storyspace – A mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative.
• Texinfo – The GNU help system.
• XML with the XLink extension – A newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML.
• Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML.
• Adobe's Portable Document Format – A widely used publication format for electronic documents including links.
• Windows Help
• PaperKiller - A document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997).
• Amigaguide - released on Amiga Workbench 1990.

Academic conferences

Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia ([1] ACM SIGWEB Hypertext Conference page). Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, include many papers of interest. There is a list on the web with links to all conferences in the series.

Hypertext fiction

Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia became available in the 1990s.

Storyspace 2.0, a professional level hypertext development tool, is available from Eastgate Systems, which has also published many notable works of electronic literature, including Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story, Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl, Stuart Moulthrop's Victory Garden, and Judy Malloy's its name was Penelope, Forward Anywhere. Other works include Julio Cortázar's Rayuela and Milorad Pavić's Dictionary of the Khazars.

An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.

Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on, and that this in turn contributes to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext can be more a problem to get appealing stories than a tool to develop creativity.^[10] However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way.^[11]. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" (Lelia Green, 2001:15) as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links.

Critics and theorists

• Tim Berners-Lee
• Jay David Bolter
• Vannevar Bush
• Robert Coover
• J. Yellowlees Douglas
• N. Katherine Hayles
• Michael Joyce
• George Landow
• Lev Manovich
• Stuart Moulthrop
• Ted Nelson
• Paul Otlet

See also

• Timeline of hypertext technology
• HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
• Hypotext
• Hyperwords
• HTTP
• Cybertext

References

1. ^ "Internet legal definition of Internet". West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. Free Online Law Dictionary. July 15, 2009. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Internet. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
2. ^ "Inventing the Medium" -Janet H. Murray
3. ^ # ^ Wardrip-Fruin, Noah and Nick Montfort, ed (2003). The New Media Reader. (29). The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-23227-8.
4. ^ Buckland, Michael K. "Emanuel Goldberg, Electronic Document Retrieval, And Vannevar Bush's Memex", 1992
5. ^ Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979-1994: A History Ablex Publishing Corporation, Norwood NJ, p. 213
6. ^ WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Re: proposed new tag: IMG
7. ^ WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Support for CSO and gopher type 2
8. ^ Hyperwords Advisory Board
9. ^ Hyperwords Advisory Board
10. ^ Biblumliteraria
11. ^ The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

• Barnet, Belinda (2004). Lost In The Archive: Vision, Artefact And Loss In The Evolution Of Hypertext. University of New South Wales, PhD thesis.
• Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2919-9.
• Buckland, Michael (2006). Emanuel Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 0-31331-332-6.
• Byers, T. J. (April 1987). "Built by association". PC World 5: 244–251.
• Cicconi, Sergio (1999). "Hypertextuality". Mediapolis. Ed. Sam Inkinen. Berlino & New York: De Gruyter.: 21–43.
• Conklin, J. (1987). "Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey". Computer 20 (9): 17–41. doi:10.1109/MC.1987.1663693.
• Crane, Gregory (1988). "Extending the boundaries of instruction and research". T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) (Macintosh Special Issue): 51–54.
• Engelbart, Douglas C. (1962). Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework, AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579. http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html.
• Ensslin, Astrid (2007). Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-95583.
• Heim, Michael (1987). Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07746-7.
• Landow, George (2006). Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8257-5.
• Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1965). "Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate". ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965 20th national conference. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036.
• Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1970). "No More Teachers’ Dirty Looks". Computer Decisions. http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html.
• Nelson, Theodor H. (1973). "A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything". AFIPS Conference Proceedings VOL. 42. pp. M22–M23.
• Nelson, Theodor H. (1992). Literary Machines 93.1. Sausalito CA: Mindful Press. ISBN 0-89347-062-7.
• van Dam, Andries (July 1988). "Hypertext: '87 keynote address". Communications of the ACM 31: 887–895. doi:10.1145/48511.48519. http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html.
• Yankelovich, Nicole; Landow, George P., and Cody, David (1987). "Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students". SIGCUE Outlook 20 (3): All.

External links

• Hypertext: Behind the Hype
• Reviving Advanced Hypertext (whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web)

History

• Historical Overview of Hypertext
• The first use of hypertext (?) - TIFF image
• A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology

Hypertext Conferences

• Ed-Media World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, and Telecommunications
• The ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia

Categories: Hypermedia | Hypertext | Electronic literature | Internet history | American inventions | Ted Nelson

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